The impact of the railways on the economic, social and cultural life of 19th century Britain was phenomenal. Perhaps only the internet has produced a comparable change in our own time. As an ‘initiating culture’ it was huge. Author James Atlee points out, “Like the web, railways forged previously unimagined connections and opened up new opportunities for commerce, while at the same time destroying long-established industries and the communities built around them”.
Railways were central to the spread of the industrial
revolution and helped make Britain one of the world’s richest and strongest
nations. But were the railways really new? What problems had to be solved
before steam locomotion was properly established as the best and most
sustainable answer for a national transportation system? What myths had to be
dismissed along the way? And finally were the widespread effects predicted?
Early railways
Against common belief hundreds of miles of railways were in use in Britain before the 1830 Liverpool to Manchester line opened. This initiative is generally thought of as Britain’s first practicable railway project, linking two major cities. But tracks with wooden rails to support wheeled vehicles had actually been in use since the 16th century. From the 1770s cast iron was more widely used for rails, though the material cracked and it was only when wrought iron came in from 1820 that the problem was solved.
It’s often assumed that these early railways, based on
horse drawn power, were only used to link mines and quarries to navigable
rivers and canals. But it’s not so. They served to connect market towns, or as local
systems for factories, farms, building sites or military bases. The reduced
rolling resistance of a railed surface was the advantage here, when moving
heavy loads on roads was both risky and difficult.
Steam engines had of course been in use for many
years. But adapting the heavy and cumbersome static models used in mills or to
pump out mines was a problem. Too big and too inefficient. They had been used
for traction to haul wagons. Pioneer Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick actually
produced a smaller version of one of his engines for a locomotive in 1802. It
was not a success.
First passengers
The first rail locomotive to carry passengers was perhaps
Trevithick’s in 1804, at Merthyr Tydfil, before one in Gateshead the following
year. In 1808 his boldly named Catch Me Who
Can had a London debut. In 1813 Puffing
Billy, designed by Hedley and Hackworth, was first used on the Stockton and
Darlington tramway. Next year George Stephenson improved on the model with his
first locomotive, Blücher. Stephenson
and his son Robert learnt from each new design, building several locomotives to
haul coal at Killingworth, North Tyneside.
In 1821 the Stephensons were tasked with building the
new Stockton to Darlington Railway, having persuaded its backers that
locomotives were the best route forward. Large crowds saw George Stephenson
drive Locomotion No. 1 off in
September 1825, pulling 36 wagons for
the nine mile trip. But there was only one purpose built passenger coach. This
first train averaged a speed of 8mph. As the line got busier, train drivers
had to pay their firemen, and buy the coke, out of their own wages. In 1828 the
boiler on Locomotion No 5 exploded,
killing a fireman. A few months later, the same happened with No. 1, killing the driver.
Rainhill trials
So clearly while locomotive power wasn't new there were limitations to its application at the time. To try and plot a realistic way forward a competition was held at Rainhill, Lancashire in 1829. It would establish the best means of traction for the proposed Liverpool to Manchester railway, and if it were locomotive (not at that stage completely certain), to identify the best design. The contest rules assumed some passenger usage, so reliability was a given. Weight restrictions dictated a light locomotive. The train had to travel 70 miles at an average speed of over 10mph. It therefore had to be state of the art.
The Stephensons’ design used a single pair of driving wheels, with pistons directly connected to them, cylinders closer to the horizontal and a separate firebox. But probably their key modification, especially after the recent accidents, was a multi-tubular boiler. This created a much bigger contact area of hot pipe with boiler water, and thus far greater efficiency. The Stephensons’ company treasurer, Henry Booth, may have suggested the change. It worked well and became the standard boiler design from then on. The Stephensons’ Rainhill model was called the Rocket. Reaching 30mph, it blew away the competition and showed locomotives could travel distances reliably and at speed.
We might at this point remember that railways had not
originally been conceived to carry people. They were built for freight of
various types, particularly coal. The Liverpool to Manchester was the first
railway not built to carry coal, but cotton. Yet after the success of
Stockton-Darlington in attracting human ‘goods’ without trying to, (people typically
travelled standing on trains in simple open wagons), the Liverpool-Manchester
railway did incorporate plans for passenger traffic. Indeed it was a specific stipulation of the Rainhill trials. It’s just that the number of people wanting to travel
exceeded all expectations.
Stephenson's 'Rocket'
The cost advantage of freight carriage over roads or
canals had been carefully computed. But no-one thought much about the market
for human travel. Long distance journeys at the time were rare, and roads often
bad, especially in winter. A boat trip might be preferable. There were cries of
“If God had wanted us to travel such distances he’d have given us engines”. On
top of this for some reason a few strong voices felt rail travel seriously harmed
female reproductive powers.
20 year railway frenzy
The long running argument over locomotion versus
stationary engines for traction ended once and for all at Rainhill. Worries over
gradients, brittle track, weight distribution, the efficiency and safety of
boilers and locomotive reliability on extended journeys, were all set aside.
Plans began for proper stations and even passenger waiting rooms. A 20-year
frenzy of railway building and development followed.
Tracks needed Parliamentary approval so lots of private bills were introduced. Many landowners were happy to have the benefit
of railways. Others were fiercely opposed. Land costs were far higher than the US, where trains first ran on the Baltimore-Ohio line at the same time as
Liverpool-Manchester. Each mile of track needed huge capital sums to be raised. Indeed many railway companies went bust.
Effects and legacy
Economic historians disagree on the extent of the
railways’ role. But they clearly boosted activity, especially in the coal,
iron, engineering and construction industries. Rail transport reduced transaction costs,
lowering goods’ prices and increasing the variety of foods available.
But perhaps the most profound changes were in that area mentioned, and not really foreseen - the people element. In the 1820s each town kept its own
time, and with limited contact between them, there was little need to
standardise clocks. But regular rail services, especially long distance ones, needed
agreed times, vital for an efficient business economy. Standard times
throughout the country, creating a basis for proper working patterns, also
boosted personal mobility. People could live away from their place of work, and
even in time, go away on holiday.
The Stephensons were instrumental in these changes.
Never satisfied with their latest model, they had a philosophy of constant
learning and improvement. This ‘don't rest on your laurels’ approach typified the
age of rapid change which followed, and which was so different from what characterised the previous cultural mainstream. Even as the revolutionary Rocket swept away the competition in
1829 at Rainhill, the Stephensons were working on a more advanced locomotive.
It was a 2.2.0 model with internal front mounted cylinders set to the
horizontal. A show stopper when launched in 1830, its design immediately became
the standard. It was named Planet. From
then on, the Rocket was obsolete.
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