The 11 years between the trial and execution of Charles I in 1649 and the return of the Stuart monarchy in 1660 was an important phase of British history. England became a republic in all but name, for the only time. At its end the regime laid claim to the whole of the British Isles. It’s a period of great complexity, with rival players, forces and factions vying for influence. No stable government lasting for more than a few months was formed. But as usual there are some myths and misconceptions, or just events not always well understood.
The English element of the Civil War turned decisively for Parliament in 1644 at Marston Moor, and was all over bar
the shouting in 1645 with Naseby. A few later battles were less serious in the
context of the total picture. But though completely defeated, the Royalists
would not come to terms. Charles first surrendered to the Scots and promised
Presbyterian rule for them and England - wholly unrealistic. After three years’
manipulating faction against faction, he had forfeited any residual trust among
the military. The Army then turned on Parliament, too. Pride’s Purge (a coup d’état),
and the Rump removed those members opposing a political role for the military. The
Army insisted Charles be held to account for what we’d now call war crimes. He
was tried and executed in January 1649.
Scotland and Ireland
Scotland, via its more conservative Presbyterians,
immediately decided to make Charles' son their king, and thus of Britain as a whole. He was in exile in
Holland. The move angered the Army, which felt it had not fought a long and
costly war only to go back to Stuart despotism. Cromwell emerged as the strong
man of the new Commonwealth and invaded Scotland. He defeated a Covenanter army
in 1650 at Dunbar. Scottish Royalist forces were finally decimated at Worcester
in September 1651.
Ireland suffered in this ‘Third Civil War’. Its Catholic Confederation had allied with the English Royalists in 1648. Parliament sought to reconquer the country but in doing so the 1649 massacres at Drogheda and Wexford badly stained Cromwell’s reputation. No matter it was men at arms refusing to surrender who were killed, normal enough practice in 17th century Europe, but the episode poisoned relations with Ireland for centuries. Irish Catholics were regarded as barbarians, an attitude continued from the Tudors and Stuarts. Historians still argue about the number of civilians killed and how many were sent as slaves to the West Indies.
Cromwell
According to Churchill, Cromwell was a great man. Despite his authoritarian instincts and behaviour, many historians might on balance agree. The key is that he was offered the crown but declined it, ruling through a Council of State. Was Cromwell an extreme Puritan? Well he himself didn’t
live a life of rigid self-control. His love of music was famous, and he enjoyed
hunting and bowls, a popular game at the time. His daughters’ weddings were opulent
affairs, with much entertainment. And when feasting with ambassadors and other
dignitaries at his preferred Hampton Court, Cromwell surprised many by really pushing
the boat out. Showy behaviour like this attracted charges of hypocrisy from the
godly.
The New Model Army is often credited to Cromwell, again wrongly. The key man was Fairfax. He recruited, organised and trained this impressive fighting machine and appointed the officers. Cromwell’s cavalry Ironsides were really the elite division. The navy is where Cromwell was indirectly perhaps more influential. By funding it properly he turned a small disorganised outfit into a large professional fleet. The navy sided with Parliament in 1642. Its leader, Sea General Robert Blake, overhauled English naval tactics and in the First Dutch War, 1652-1654, defeated Holland’s renowned fleet.
This was largely a trade war. But then Cromwell signed
a treaty with France, and under his Western Design targeted the leading Catholic
power, Spain, for political, colonial and commercial reasons. A strong fleet
and 3000 marines under William Penn and Robert Venables tried to seize
Hispaniola but failed abysmally. The remnants limped on to Jamaica, taking it from
Spain and somehow holding it. Interestingly, it was perhaps the first time sugar had
been the principal currency in a British trade war.
Back in Europe Blake blockaded Cadiz, his whole fleet uniquely
remaining at sea over the winter. He obliterated a treasure convoy at Santa
Cruz, Tenerife, with daring and imagination. It disrupted Spanish trade and Spain’s
economy took a hit of around £2m, billions in today's terms. Blake was relatively new to the sea, but proved
to be a brilliant naval commander, one of the best the country has ever had. Jellicoe
and Nelson, among others, definitely thought so. Blake died in 1657 and huge
crowds came to his Westminster Abbey state funeral. But 1661’s vindictive ‘Cavalier
Parliament’ had the body of this national hero disinterred and thrown into a nearby
pit.
Army splits
During the whole period The Army was a hotbed of
debate over religion and politics. More puritan than Parliament by 1649 it was
divided into supporters of the army Grandees, like Cromwell, and (non-Presbyterian)
Independents. From the latter side sprang the Levellers. They were more
numerous than sometimes thought. Egalitarian in outlook, their demands were
ahead of their time. They believed in fairer shares and indeed, their policies would
not be out of place today. They scorned the idea that material well-being was a
character test, with wealth the reward for the godly, as glib to the point of
insult. Some of their leaders were hanged and the movement was finally crushed
by Cromwell.
Various half-baked revolts erupted from the mid-1650s.
But the Protectorate’s intelligence was smart. Its chief, Thurloe, had a strong
network of informers so each outbreak could be countered before it happened. Most
of these ‘rebellions’ were amateur, but Penruddock’s in 1655 was more serious. It led to the Rule of
the Major Generals, where England was divided into 10 military regions. While
only lasting a year this format was marked by some killjoy local decisions, creating
a bad image of Puritan politics over the whole period. In fact the rules varied
hugely from one region to another - some areas even allowed horse racing. The
Major Generals’ unpopular regime was abandoned in 1657.
Puritanical leaning?
Parliament (not Cromwell) closed the English theatres in 1642.
It’s an act that most arts folk abhor, and often lament. But theatres then were maybe not the sort
we think of today. Bear baiting, gambling and brothels, often conducted in the
same places, were simultaneously banned. This context is rarely mentioned. And rather against the modern perception it's worth noting that the first English opera,
Davenant’s The Siege of Rhodes, was performed in 1656. Concerts were also popular throughout the period. Some of Charles’ large art collection was sold
at Somerset House in 1649. Philip IV of Spain and French statesman Cardinal
Mazarin were among the buyers.
What of Christmas? People routinely say that Cromwell cancelled it. While it’s true that the Parliament of the ‘saints’ opposed public entertainment on holy days and passed decrees that Christmas should be treated as an ordinary working day, the moves were unpopular. These regulations were not really enforceable so they were honoured mainly in the breach. Any sanctions were lightly, if at all, enforced. And it is emphatically not true that mince pies were banned.
Commonwealth reputation
In its first two years the Commonwealth faced economic
depression. By 1653 things had improved. Despite religious and political
turmoil, there was industrial and commercial progress, with excise duties introduced
and the reform of financial and credit instruments. A professional class grew in importance. If the
British military state was regarded abroad with fear, it was also with much respect.
France and Spain formally recognised it in 1653. A strong army and stronger
navy backed a robust foreign policy. It was a state of affairs which would not
survive the Restoration.
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